France’s Hidden Empire in Africa

 

France’s formal colonial empire in Africa officially ended in the late 1950s and early 1960s, following a wave of independence movements that reshaped the continent. Yet independence did not mark the end of French power in Africa. Instead, it signaled a transformation—from overt colonial rule to a sophisticated system of political, economic, military, and cultural influence often described as France’s hidden empire. This informal empire, sustained through elite networks, financial instruments, security arrangements, and ideological control, has allowed France to retain disproportionate influence over large parts of Francophone Africa long after the lowering of colonial flags.

From Formal Empire to Informal Control

At its height, France controlled one of the largest colonial empires in the world, spanning North Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and parts of the Indian Ocean. The decolonization process was uneven. While some territories, such as Guinea under Sékou Touré, pursued a radical break from France, most were ushered into independence under conditions that preserved French strategic interests.

Rather than dismantling imperial structures, France redesigned them. Colonial administrators were replaced by African elites trained in French institutions, dependent on French political backing, and embedded within French economic and military systems. This shift reflected what historian Frederick Cooper describes as a “reconfiguration of empire rather than its dissolution,” where sovereignty was granted without genuine autonomy.

Françafrique: The Architecture of the Hidden Empire

The term Françafrique captures the informal networks that sustained France’s postcolonial dominance. Coined initially in a positive sense by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Côte d’Ivoire’s first president, it later came to denote corruption, clientelism, and covert influence.

At the heart of Françafrique were personal relationships between French presidents, African heads of state, intelligence services, multinational corporations, and intermediaries known as réseaux. Decisions affecting millions were often made outside formal diplomatic channels. As François-Xavier Verschave famously argued, Françafrique functioned as a “shadow system of governance,” insulated from democratic scrutiny both in France and in Africa.

French support frequently sustained authoritarian regimes that guaranteed loyalty to Paris. Leaders such as Omar Bongo (Gabon), Gnassingbé Eyadéma (Togo), and Idriss Déby (Chad) ruled for decades with explicit or tacit French backing, despite poor human rights records.

The CFA Franc: Monetary Control as Imperial Continuity

One of the most enduring pillars of France’s hidden empire has been monetary control through the CFA franc. Used by fourteen African countries across West and Central Africa, the CFA franc was created during the colonial period and remains pegged to the euro, with reserves historically held in the French Treasury.

Supporters argue that the CFA franc ensures monetary stability and low inflation. Critics counter that it severely restricts economic sovereignty, limits industrial policy, and locks African economies into extractive roles that benefit French and European markets. Economist Kako Nubukpo describes the CFA system as “a monetary leash,” preventing genuine economic transformation while facilitating capital flight and dependency.

Although reforms announced in recent years—such as the renaming of the West African CFA to the “Eco”—suggest change, core structures of external oversight remain largely intact.

Military Presence and Security Dependency

France’s military footprint in Africa is another key mechanism of its hidden empire. Through defense agreements signed at independence, France retained the right to station troops, intervene militarily, and influence security policies across its former colonies.

From Operation Manta in Chad (1980s) to Operation Barkhane in the Sahel (2014–2022), French interventions have been framed as peacekeeping or counterterrorism missions. However, critics argue that these operations often prioritize French strategic interests—such as regional influence, access to resources, and geopolitical positioning—over local stability.

The persistence of insecurity in the Sahel, despite years of French military presence, has fueled widespread public resentment. In Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, popular protests and subsequent military governments have explicitly rejected French security dominance, marking a significant challenge to France’s postcolonial military model.

Economic Extraction and Corporate Power

French multinational corporations remain deeply embedded in African economies. Companies such as TotalEnergies, Bolloré, Orange, and Vinci dominate sectors ranging from oil and gas to logistics, telecommunications, and infrastructure.

These corporations often benefit from preferential contracts, weak regulatory environments, and political protection facilitated by state-to-state relationships. The control of ports, railways, and energy infrastructure gives French firms enormous leverage over African trade and development pathways.

Samir Amin described this arrangement as a form of “unequal integration,” where African economies are integrated into global capitalism in ways that perpetuate dependency rather than development.

Cultural and Epistemic Influence

Beyond economics and security, France’s hidden empire operates at the level of culture and knowledge. French remains the official language in many African states, dominating administration, education, and diplomacy. French curricula, academic standards, and cultural institutions continue to shape elite formation.

Institutions such as the Alliance Française and Francophonie promote cultural exchange, but critics argue that they also reinforce linguistic hierarchies that marginalize indigenous languages and knowledge systems. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s critique of linguistic imperialism is particularly relevant here: control over language is control over imagination, identity, and power.

Crisis and Resistance in the 21st Century

In recent years, France’s hidden empire has entered a period of visible crisis. Rising youth populations, social media activism, economic frustration, and the re-emergence of pan-Africanist thought have eroded the legitimacy of French influence. Russian, Chinese, and Turkish engagements—however controversial—have also provided alternatives, breaking France’s monopoly over partnerships.

Anti-French sentiment is not merely emotional or foreign-manipulated, as often claimed, but rooted in historical memory and lived experience. As Achille Mbembe notes, Africa’s current political consciousness reflects a demand for “exit from the postcolony”—a rejection of symbolic independence without material sovereignty.

Conclusion: An Empire in Retreat or Transformation?

France’s hidden empire in Africa demonstrates that imperial power does not end with political independence. It adapts, embeds itself in institutions, and reproduces dependency through subtle mechanisms that are harder to dismantle than colonial rule itself.

Yet this system is no longer uncontested. The unraveling of military alliances, monetary debates, popular protests, and cultural reassertion suggest that Françafrique is weakening, even if it has not disappeared. The central question is not whether France will lose influence in Africa, but whether African states can finally redefine sovereignty on their own terms—economically, politically, and intellectually.

True decolonization, as this history shows, is not an event. It is a struggle.